沙特大学生智能手机成瘾、身体意象、进食障碍与身体活动的性别差异：一项横断面研究

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Front. Psychol., 02 October 2026

Sec. Addictive Behaviors

Volume 17 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823725

Abstract

Introduction:

Smartphone addiction, body image concerns, eating disorders, and physical activity are interconnected issues affecting many young people, regardless of gender. This study examines differences in smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity between male and female participants.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study was conducted with 318 university students (168 males, 150 females) in Saudi Arabia. There average age was of 20.86 ± 3.47 years, a height of 168.24 ± 11.36 cm, and a weight of 65.26 ± 18.32 kg. Data were collected via an online survey using the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version (SAS-SV), Body Image Questionnaire (BIQ-19), Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q 6.0) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-SF). All instruments demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s α > 0.70) in previous validation studies. Statistical analysis employed Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis tests with a significance level of p < 0.05.

Results:

No significant differences were found in smartphones addiction (z = −0.64, p = 0.52), body image (z = −0.32, p = 0.75), physical activity (z = −0.61, p = 54). Whereas a significant difference was found in eating disorder (z = 2.91, p = 0.004), with female showing higher prevalence (88%) compare to male (76%). Sub-scales revealed significant within-group differences for all variables.

Conclusion:

This study revealed insignificant gender differences for smartphone addiction, body image, and physical activity levels except eating disorders. Future research should employ longitudinal designs and objective measures to clarify causal pathways and gender-specific mechanisms for all related variables.

1 Introduction

Smartphone addiction is increasingly recognized as a behavioral addiction characterized by excessive or compulsive use that interferes with daily life (). Understanding gender-specific differences in smartphone addiction is crucial as males and females may differ in prevalence, patterns of use, and associated psychological factors. The prevalence of smartphone addiction varies widely across populations and regions, with meta-analytic estimates indicating rates around 30%–40% among young adults and adolescents, particularly in Asian countries (; ). Research suggests that females may be more prone to use smartphones for social networking and emotional connection, whereas males might engage more in gaming and entertainment, which may contribute differently to addiction risk (). Body image refers to an individual’s perceptions, attitudes, and feelings about their physical appearance. Research consistently shows that females tend to experience higher levels of body dissatisfaction compared to males (). This is largely due to societal pressures that emphasize thinness and specific beauty ideals for women, which are perpetuated by the media and social platforms (). Males, while generally reporting lower body dissatisfaction, face their own pressures related to muscularity and leanness ideals (). Eating disorders are complex mental health conditions characterized by abnormal eating behaviors and distorted body image. Large-scale data provide compelling evidence that smartphone addiction partially mediates the relationship between eating disorders (). Female students generally exhibit higher risk for eating disorders and greater body dissatisfaction, while males may demonstrate higher rates of internet addiction, a closely related construct to smartphone addiction (). Physical activity plays a significant role in the context of smartphone addiction, body image, and eating disorders. Adolescents who engage in regular physical exercise demonstrated better self-control, which partially mediates their reduced dependence on smartphones (). Female adolescents showed a higher prevalence of low back pain associated with prolonged use of electronic devices, including smartphones (). Similarly, university students with smartphone addiction exhibited more postural problems and muscle trigger points (). Excessive or compulsive exercise can be a symptom or risk factor for eating disorders, particularly in sports emphasizing. Physical activity effectively reduces blood pressure in both men and women, with some evidence suggesting greater benefits in physically active males who do not use antihypertensive medication ().

The available evidence suggests a complex, bidirectional association between smartphone addiction, body image concerns, eating disorders, and physical activity. As smartphone use becomes widespread, especially among younger people, understanding its psychological and behavioral effects is crucial. Smartphones, often connected with social media, can foster negative body image perceptions and contribute to the increasing rates of eating disorders. Additionally, increased screen time may reduce physical activity, further affecting overall health outcomes. Despite growing evidence associated these variables, few studies have examined their interrelationships simultaneously among Saudi university students. The Saudi cultural context, with its unique sociocultural norms regarding gender roles, body image expectations, and technology use patterns, warrants specific investigation. Understanding this gender specific pattern in Saudi Arabia is crucial developing culturally appropriate interventions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine gender-specific differences in smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity. The hypothesis formulated for this study were that females participants demonstrated significantly higher smartphone addiction and eating disorder compare to males, and males participants demonstrated significant higher body image satisfaction and physical activity levels compare to females participants.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study design

A cross-sectional study design was employed to achieve the study’s objective.

2.2 Study setting

This study was conducted in an online mode. The data were collected between January 2024 and May 2024 from Riyadh province Saudi Arabia.

2.3 Ethical approval

The studies involving humans were approved by Institutional Review Board of Shaqra University, Shaqra (HAPO-01-R-128). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

2.4 Sample size

The sample size was calculated based on a confidence level of 95%, a margin of error of 5%, a population proportion of 50%, and an estimated population size of 1,400. The following formula was used to calculate the sample size.

Where z = 1.96 at 95% confidence level, p = 0.05, and ε = 0.05 (margin of error), the calculated sample size was approximately 302 participants, and the study successfully recruited 318 participants, exceeding the required sample size.

2.5 Sampling technique

Non-probability sampling was used to recruit participants. An online survey link was disseminated via social networks (WhatsApp, Facebook) and email to university students. Participants were requested to circulated the survey link among classmates and other known students.

Figure 1 four horizontal bar charts present independent-samples Mann-Whitney U Test results comparing gender for SA, BI, ED, and PA measures, displaying frequency distributions, summary statistics, and mean ranks for males and females in each panel.

FIGURE 1

2.6 Participants

This study recruited 318 participants, with 168 male and 150 females. All participants voluntarily took part in this study.

2.6.1 Inclusion criteria

University students aged 18 years or older who had used smartphone for at least 2 years.

2.6.2 Exclusion criteria

Participants under 18 years old and those who had used smartphones for less than 2 years were excluded from the study. The 2-year smartphone criteria were selected to ensure participants had sufficient exposure and experience with smartphone use to develop potential addiction patterns.

2.7 Measures

2.7.1 Smartphone addiction

The Smartphone Addiction Scale - Short Version (SAS-SV) was used to measure smartphone addiction (). It was designed to evaluate smartphone addiction through 10 questions focused on behavioral patterns related to smartphone use. SAS-SV was developed by in and is especially useful for screening adolescents at risk of smartphone addiction, emphasizing its importance in mental health research. Males are considered addicted if they score higher than 31, while females are considered addicted if they score higher than 33 (). The SAS-SV has demonstrated strong psychometric properties (Cronbach’s α = 0.91 in validation studies) (). For the current sample, Cronbach’s α was 0.87.

2.7.2 Body image

The Body Image Questionnaire (BIQ-19; ) is a 19-item self-report instrument that assesses individuals’ perceptions and attitudes toward their body image. It assesses various aspects of body satisfaction beyond simple metrics, such as feelings, perceptions, and attitudes toward one’s physical appearance (). Males are considered satisfied if they score less than 56, while females are considered satisfied if they score less than 53. It is a valuable resource in psychological assessments. The BIQ-19 has been validated through extensive studies, including a principal components analysis involving over 1,000 participants, confirming its reliability and effectiveness in measuring body image across diverse populations (). For the current sample, Cronbach’s α was 0.82.

2.7.3 Eating disorders

The Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q 6.0; ) was used to identify eating disorders within the gender population. This self-report tool is designed to evaluate eating disorder attitudes and behaviors over the past 28 days, focusing on aspects like weight control and body image. The questionnaire includes questions covering various domains, including feelings about eating, body shape, and exercise behaviors, providing insights into the individual’s relationship with food and self-image (). For the current sample, Cronbach’s α was 0.88.

2.7.4 Physical activity level

The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF; ). Short Form was used to assess physical activity levels. IPAQ-SF is a widely used questionnaire that assesses physical activity levels over the past week. It is a concise tool comprising a few questions about different types of physical activities (). The physical activity level was determined by the estimated total physical activity in MET minutes per week. According to the WHO physical activity level classification, participants were categorized into three groups: low, moderate, and high. Test-retest reliability is ρ = 0.80. For the current sample, Cronbach’s α was 0.76.

2.8 Procedure

An online survey was created using Google Forms. This survey included an informed consent form and questionnaire on anthropometric data (age, weight, height, gender), marital status, duration of mobile usage, and smartphone addiction, eating disorders, body image, and physical activity level. The link to the survey was disseminated via social networks (WhatsApp, Facebook) and via email to students, and it was requested that they circulate it among their classmates and other known students. Before completing the questionnaire, they indicate their willingness to participate. They provide their anthropometric data and the best possible answers regarding mobile use, eating disorders, body image, and level of physical activity that apply to them. Approximately 20–25 min were spent attempting to complete the survey. Later, data were extracted from Google Forms and imported into MS Excel for further analysis.

To ensure data quality, we monitored completion items, checked for duplicate responses using IP address verification, and performed logic check on responses. Incomplete questionnaires (less than 90% completion) were excluded. The response rate as approximately 65% (318 completed response from approximately 490 initial participants). All data were anonymized, stored on password-protected computers, and accessible only to the research team members.

2.9 Statistical analysis

Statistical Analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) statistical Software (IBM 29.0, IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, USA) for Windows. The data were checked for outliers and normality. The Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed that the distributions of age, height, and weight were normally distributed, allowing for the use of parametric tests. However, the distributions of smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorder, and physical activity variables were not normal; thus, non-parametric tests were used. The descriptive statistical analysis was done using mean, standard deviation (SD), mean rank, sum of ranks, and graphs. Anthropometrical differences between male and female participants were determined using an independent t-test. A comparison between males and females for smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity level was conducted using the Mann-Whitney U test. The sub-scale differences were determined by the Mann-Whitney U tests, while differences among levels of physical activity were assessed using the Kruskal-Wallis Test. Missing data were handled by listwise deletion, with less than 5% missing data overall. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d or r) were calculated where appropriate. All statistical tests were conducted at a significance level of 0.05, using a two-tailed test.

3 Results

The findings indicate that anthropometric measurements met the assumptions for parametric analysis, whereas the independent variables required both parametric and non-parametric testing, as indicated in Table 1. Table 2 shown significant differences were observed between males and females in height (t = 6.44, p < 0.001) and weight (t = 8.22, p < 0.001), but not in age (t = 0.55, p = 0.58). Table 3 demonstrated no significant gender differences were found in overall smartphone addiction, body image, or physical activity levels; however, eating disorder scores differed significantly (z = −2.91, p = 0.004). Table 4 revealed that significant differences were also reported across the subscales of smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorder, and physical activity for both males and females (p < 0.001), indicating variation in these measures across the study groups.

TABLE 1

Normality analysis between male and female participants for anthropometric and selected independent variables.

This table shows that the statistical values of anthropometrical measurements are not significant. Therefore, we assume that the data are normally distributed. Thus, parametric tests were conducted. At the same time, the statistical values for different independent variables differ significantly. We assume that the data are not normally distributed, and further analysis was conducted using both non-parametric tests.

TABLE 2

Anthropometric differences between male and female participants.

This table demonstrated that this study recruited 318 participants, with 168 male and 150 females with an average age of 20.86 ± 3.47 years, a height of 168.24 ± 11.36 cm, and a weight of 65.26 ± 18.32 kg. Significant differences between males and females in height (t = 6.44, p < 0.001) and weight (t = 8.22, p < 0.001). In contrast, no significant difference was observed between males and females in age (t = 0.55, p = 0.58).

TABLE 3

Differences between male and female participants for their various parameters.

This table demonstrated that no significant differences existed between males and females in terms of Smartphone addiction (z = −0.64, p = 0.52, r = 0.04), body image (z = −0.32, p = 0.75, r = 0.02), and level of physical activity (z = −0.61, p = 0.54, r = 0.03) with negligible effects. In contrast, significant difference was observed between males and females for eating disorder (z = −2.91, p = 0.004, r = 0.16) with small effect.

TABLE 4

Differences between male and female participants for the sub-scales of various parameters.

This table demonstrated that significant differences existed between sub-scales of smartphone addiction (Non-Addicted vs. Addicted) {male (z = 9.55, p ≤ 0.001), Female (z = −10.07, p ≤ 0.001)}, body image (Satisfied vs. Unsatisfied) {(z = −10.54, p ≤ 0.001), female (z = −10.66, p ≤ 0.001)}, and eating disorder (Present vs. Absent) {(z = −5.98, p ≤ 0.001), female (z = −3.54, p ≤ 0.001)}, and level of physical activity (Low, Moderate, and High) {(z = 133.02, p ≤ 0.001), female (z = 123.67, p ≤ 0.001)}.

4 Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate gender-specific differences in smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity. The results of this study revealed no significant differences between males and females in smartphone addiction, body image, or physical activity levels contrasting with our hypothesis. In contrast, an important difference was observed between males and females for eating disorders, with females demonstrating higher prevalence than males, supporting our hypothesis. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found no significant gender difference in smartphone addiction. This finding disagrees from some previous studies. reported that male were slightly more likely to be affected (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.03–1.12) among 36,365 Chinese medical students, Conversely, found in a meta-analysis of 5,497 Asian medical students, found a higher prevalence of smartphone addiction at 41.93%, with females constituting 3,214 of the participants and showing greater addiction rates (2,181 addicted females) (). found that female children scored significantly higher on mobile phone addiction scales than males (mean 25.93 vs. 14.77, p = 0.03). In contrast, males scored higher on internet gaming disorder, reinforcing gender-specific addiction phenotypes (). Our null findings may reflect the diverse disciplinary backgrounds of our participants compared to the medical students’ samples in previous studies, or potentially different use patterns in the Saudi Arabia context.

No significant gender difference was found in the body image satisfaction. This contrasts with extensive literature supporting greater body dissatisfaction among females ; and . Our findings may be attributed to cultural factors in Saudi Arabia, where modesty norms and less exposure to western thin-ideal media may buffer body dissatisfaction in female. Alternatively, males in our sample may experience pressures related to muscularity ideals that were not adequately captured by the BIQ-19, which focuses primarily on thin oriented body concerns. meta-analyzed 21 studies (moderate quality) and found that athletes generally report lower body image concerns than non-athletes, with no significant gender differences (), suggesting that physical activity participation may buffer societal pressures.

The significant gender difference in eating disorders, with females showing higher prevalence, aligns with extensive literature. provide a comprehensive narrative review emphasizing that females are disproportionately affected by eating disorders, with lifetime prevalence estimates ranging from 2% to 5% (). In contrast, males are underdiagnosed due to atypical presentations and diagnostic biases. This gender gap is supported by , found female college students had significantly higher prevalence of disordered eating behaviors (11.6% vs. 5.7%, OR = 2.19) and food addiction (12.3% vs. 4.6%, OR = 3.04) compared to males, corroborating the epidemiological trend (). critically review measurement tools for adolescent boys, highlighting that those instruments primarily validated in females may underestimate male disordered eating, particularly regarding muscularity-oriented behaviors, such as drive for muscularity, which is often neglected in traditional assessments (). The high prevalence in our sample (76%–88%) is concerning and may reflect the EDE-Q’s sensitivity or potential overestimation in a non-clinical population.

No significant gender difference was found in physical activity levels, consistent with some previous findings and contrasting with studies showing lower physical activity among females (). Our findings may reflect the unique sociocultural context where Saudi females have increasing opportunities for physical activity, or the IPAQ-SF’s limitations in capturing culturally specific physical activities.

The evidence firmly establishes that smartphone addiction is a multifaceted risk factor for distorted body image, increased eating disorder behaviors, and reduced physical activity, with these effects manifesting differently across genders. Future research should employ longitudinal designs and objective measures to elucidate causal pathways and gender-specific mechanisms.

The non-significant findings for three of four parameters challenge prevailing assumptions about universal gender differences in these domains. Our results suggest that cultural context may moderate gender differences in smartphone addiction, body image, and physical activity. The significant eating disorder finding, indicates that gender remains a robust predictor in this domain, consistent with biopsychosocial models. The high eating prevalence in both genders warrants concern and suggests the need for screening and intervention programs in Saudi Arabia universities. The lack of gender differences in smartphone addiction suggests that interventions should target both genders equally.

Some limitations could impact the results of this study. Because it is a cross-sectional study, it collects data at only one point in time, which limits the ability to determine causality between smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity. The study employed self-reported questionnaires or scales for these variables, which could introduce bias, as participants might tend to underestimate or overestimate their responses. It only included adults; therefore, the findings may not be fully generalizable to other groups. The lack of validated Arabic versions for all instruments may have affected measurement accuracy. Additionally, the relatively small sample size may limit the applicability of the results to the larger population of adults at Saudi universities. Participants’ existing habits, health conditions, or medications could also affect their physical activity levels and other measures, possibly confounding the results. Future studies should employ longitudinal designs with objective measure and larger, more diverse participants.

5 Conclusion

This study revealed significant gender differences only for eating disorders, with females demonstrating higher prevalence than males. No significant gender differences were found for smartphone addiction, body image, and physical activity. Male participants were more likely to be addicted to smartphones than females. Males were more satisfied with their body image than females. Females had higher rates of eating disorders than males. Moderate physical activity was higher in males than in females. Future research should use longitudinal designs, objective measures, and culturally adopted instruments to clarify causal pathways and gender-specific mechanisms for all related parameters.

Statements

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in this article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Institutional Review Board of Shaqra University, Shaqra (HAPO-01-R-128). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

BA: Data curation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. KA: Methodology, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Supervision, Conceptualization. SM: Visualization, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision. MA: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Shaqra University for supporting this work.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. The Grammarly tool has been used to paraphrase sentences and correct grammatical errors.

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Keywords

body satisfaction, eating habits, females, internet addiction, males, physical exercise

Citation

Alqahtani BS, Alkhathami KM, Moosa SS and Ahsan M (2026) Gender-specific differences in smartphone addiction, body image, eating disorders, and physical activity: a cross-sectional investigation. Front. Psychol. 17:1823725. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823725

Received

05 March 2026

Revised

25 August 2026

Accepted

01 September 2026

Published

02 October 2026

Volume

17 - 2026

Updates

Copyright

© 2026 Alqahtani, Alkhathami, Moosa and Ahsan.

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*Correspondence: Mohammad Ahsan, mahsan@iau.edu.sa

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