系统综述：孤独症成人及其家庭污名与生活质量结局的关联

Alhusayni et al. (2025) (50)UKQuantitative (Experimental)Mean Age = 23.84 +/- 5.30
n (female) = 21
n (males) = 4Neurotypical university students (n = 25)18 stimulus models (9 autistic, 9 non-autistic) each provided 4 silent video clips of their behavior. Questionnaire evaluated attitudes towards the models including academic success and performance, motivation to study and happinessPublic StigmaAutistic stimulus models were rated more negatively in all academic domains and happiness compared with neurotypical individuals. Raters were blinded to the autism status of the models.Bachmann et al. (2019) (82)GermanyQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 31.8 +/- 11.4
n (female) = 118
n (males) = 31
n (learning disability IQ 70-84) = 26ASD (n = 149)Internalised Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (ISMI-10)
IQ Test
International standard classification of educationSelf/Internalised StigmaHigher levels of internalised stigma was associated with increasing age and lower education levels. Participants reported relatively low levels of internalised stigma, with 15.4% reporting moderate to severe levels.Bakombo et al. (2023) (83)CanadaQualitative (Content analysis)Youtube Video search
n (Videos) = 59
n (Comments) = 680
n (2019 Videos) = 50
n (2019 Comments) = 500
n (2022 Videos) = 9
n (2022 Comments) = 180Youtube videos and commenters discussing autistic people and ASDThematic analysis of Youtube videos and comments
Sentiment analysis with Azure machine learning add in for Excel
Identification of damaging language and stigmatisationPublic StigmaMost Youtube videos were of educational purpose with comments that mostly contained negative sentiment. These comments centered around low empathy and perceptions that homogenised ASD. Use of damaging language and levels of stigma were low.Baldwin & Costley (2015) (53)AustraliaMixed MethodsMean Age = 32.7 +/- 12.3
n (female) = 82ASD adults who were a subgroup of a larger adult ASD sample (n = 82)28 item questionnaire examining health and wellbeing, education, employment, social activities, support needs and aspirationsPublic StigmaAutistic women reported higher levels of mental health distress and lower rates of employment despite relatively high educational achievement. Barriers reported included social isolation, discrimination, bullying, unmet support needs in educational or work environments and need to mask autistic traits to prevent negative judgement.Beck et al. (2026) ()USAQualitative (Semi-structured interviews)Age Range = 19-68
n (female) = 7
n (male) = 7
n (non-binary) = 1ASD (n = 15)Semi-structured interviews examining experiences of emotional dysregulationPublic, Internalised &
Structural StigmaMost participants experienced discrimination and stigma, including in healthcare, employment and social settings, leading to disempowerment and exacerbating emotional outbursts. Lack of support and understanding paired with social rejection led to low self-worth, social masking and emotional dysregulation, causing instances of job loss, involuntary sedation and removal of care.Belluzzo al. (2025) ()ItalyQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Age Range = 25-30
n (female) = 1ASD (n = 1)
Serious Mental Illness & Intellectual Disability (n = 12)Semi structured interviews examining body perception, sexuality and relationshipsInternalised, Public & Structural StigmaThe autistic participant reported psychosexual marginalisation underpinned by limited support services, family control and societal stigma, contributing to anxiety, shame, vulnerability to exploitation and misunderstandings about sexual identity and intimate relationships.Black et al. (2020) ()Australia, Sweden, USAQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age (ASD) = 36.9 +/- 12.11
n (male ASD) = 98
n (female ASD) = 137
Mean Age (Family members) = 21.2 +/- 5.7
n (male family member) = 183
n (female family member) = 47Total (n = 687)
ASD (n = 246)
Family members of ASD (n = 233)
Employers (n = 35)
Service providers (n = 123)
Researchers (n = 50)30-point questionnaire utilising a 4-point Likert Scale on the barriers and facilitators to different stages of employment (preparing, gaining and maintaining)Public & StructuralEmployment barriers included stigma, communication difficulties, and poor understanding, with stigma driving nondisclosure. Employers underestimated communication challenges compared to autistic adults.Bouaddi et al. (2025) (46)MoroccoQualitative (Semi structured interview and focus group)Mean Age (ASD) = 23.8 +/-6.09
n (female ASD) = 2
n (male ASD) = 6
Mean Age (parents) = 50.1+/- 8.21
n (female parents) = 5
n (male parents) = 6
Mean Age (health professionals) = 33.1+/- 6.2
n (female health professionals) = 13
n (male health professionals) = 2total (n = 40)
ASD adults (n = 8)
ASD caregivers (n = 11)
Healthcare professionals (n = 15)
Civil society representatives (n = 6)Focus group discussions with ASD individuals to examine perceptions, experiences and challenges of autism services, healthcare and education
Semi structured interviews with caregivers, health providers and civil society representativesPublic & Structural StigmaLimited autism knowledge, services, and accommodations delayed diagnosis and support, while lifelong stigma contributed to isolation and poorer outcomes.Brake (2025) ()CanadaQualitative (Semi structured interview and focus group)n (male) = 7
n (female) = 11
n (non-binary) = 3ASD (n = 21)Semi structured interviews examining autism perceptions and stigma, life and social experiences
Focus group discussionsPublic, Internalised and Intersectional StigmaAutism stigma led to bullying, discrimination, internalised stigma, and camouflaging.
Intersecting identities further amplified exclusion and disadvantage.Brosnin & Gavin (2021) (84)UKQuantitative (Experimental)Age Range = 18-25
n (female) = 306Neurotypical women seeking male partner (n = 306)Social distancing scale
Rating dating profiles of autistic men based on social, physical and task attractiveness, trustworthiness and desire to date on a Likert ScalePublic & Societal StigmaASD stigma inversely predicted social attractiveness, task attractiveness, and dating desirability for autism-labeled profiles, directly modulating evaluative responses.Bury et al. (2022) (85)AustraliaQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 34.89 +/-12.34
n (male) = 58
n (female) = 111
n (non-binary) = 29ASD (n = 198)Autism Spectrum Quotient
Leach Identity Scale
Autism Awareness Scale
Internalised Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (ISMI)
Spectrum Abilities Subscale of the Autism Spectrum Identity Scale
Questionnaire on masking and sources of autism knowledgeInternalised StigmaLearning about ASD from traditional sources such as parents, media and film were linked to higher stigma, while peer and autistic-led sources were linked to greater knowledge and stronger autistic identity.Cage et al. (2019) (56)UKQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 21.44 +/-9.99
n (male) = 60
n (female) = 297
n (other) = 4n (neurotypical participants) = 361
n (adults) = 109
n (undergraduate psychology students) = 144
n (adolescents 16-17) = 108Vignette of autistic adults
Questionnaire examining dehumanisation and autism openness, knowledge and experiencePublic StigmaAutistic individuals were dehumanised and seen as less human than neurotypical peers, although greater autism openness reduced this effect. Knowledge alone did not improve attitudes.Caron et al. (2022) (86)Canada & FranceQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age (France) = 33.51 +/- 11.74
n (male) = 31
n (female) = 113
n (other) = 58
Mean Age (Quebec) = 37.03 +/-11.08
n (male) = 68
n (female) = 130
n (other) = 27ASD Total (n = 427)
French Group (n = 202)
Quebec Group (n = 225)Autism Quality of Life Measure (ASQoL)
Autism Spectrum Quotient (ASQ)
Questionnaire examining experiences of perceived violencePublic StigmaFrench and Canadian groups reported stigma and violence, which were associated with lower quality of life across physical, mental, social, and environmental domains.Cheng et al. (2025) (87)UK, USA & Hong KongQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age (Hong Kong) = 22.26 +/- 4.36
n (male) = 38
n (female) = 75
n (Non-binary) = 1
n (Undisclosed) = 5
Mean Age (UK) = 28.74 +/- 10.9
n (male) = 37
n (female) = 79
n (Non-binary) = 2
n (other) = 1
n (undisclosed) = 1
Mean Age (USA) = 26.02 +/- 8.21
n (male) = 48
n (female) = 67
n (non-binary) = 3
n (transgender female) = 2
n (other) = 2Neurotypical University Students Total (n = 368)
Hong Kong Group (n = 125)
UK Group (n = 120)
USA Group (n = 123Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Participatory Autism Knowledge Measure (PAK-M)
Culture Orientation Scale
Social Distance Scale (SDS)Public StigmaHigher stigma was associated with lower autism knowledge, higher bias, and more individualistic values, with lower knowledge in Hong Kong than USA and UK.Clarke et al. (2024) (73)USA, UK, NorwayMixed MethodsAAA
n (male) = 297
n (female) = 109
EDX
n (male) = 158
n (female) =
34
RI-CART
n (male) = 795
n (female) = 221
MoBa
n (male) = 146
n (female) = 42
SNAP
n (male) = 139
n (female) = 16
QUEST
n (male) = 46
n (female) = 34Caregivers of Autistic Adults (n = 20)
Adolescents and Adults with Autism Cohort (AAA) (n = 406)
Early Diagnosis Cohort (EDX) (n = 192)
Rhode Island Consortium of Autism Research and Treatment (RI-CART) (n = 1016)
Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort (MoBa) (n = 188)
Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP) (n = 155)
QUEST (n = 80)Prevalence of Profound Autism
Semi structured interviews examining quality of life of caregivers of autistic adultsStructural & Affiliate StigmaThe vast majority of caregivers reported at least one experience of perceived stigma, exacerbated by inaccurate community perceptions of autism. Caregivers also reported inadequate access to housing, healthcare and activities for their autistic adult children, further marginalising them from society.Crompton et al. (2022) (47)UKQualitative (Semi-structured interviews)Mean Age = 24.54 +/- 4.19
n (male) = 8
n (female) = 5ASD (n = 13)Semi structured interviews examining attitudes and barriers to implementing autistic peer support in secondary schools
Autism Quotient ScorePublic & Internalised StigmaPeer support improved belonging and reduced camouflaging, but stigma limited disclosure due to fear of judgement.Curnow et al. (2025) (42)UKQualitative (Semi-structured interviews)Mean Age = 43.41 +/- 10.24
n (male) = 10
n (female) = 22
n (non-binary) = 2ASD Adults Employed in Healthcare or Education Sector (n = 34)Semi structured interview examining autistic professionals’ lived experiencePublic, Structural & Internalised StigmaASD disclosure often led to discrimination, with communication difficulties and sensory overload increasing stress and mental health burden.Dambrun et al. (2024) (88)FranceQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 21.0 +/- 6.0
n (male) = 126
n (female) = 342
n (other) = 19Neurotypical Adults (n = 952)Social Distance Scale (SDS)
Feeling Thermometer
Visual analog scales for social perceptions including vital forces, burden, warmth, competence and dangerousnessPublic StigmaCompared to 14 other mental illnesses, ASD was perceived favorably among French participants, in contrast to more stigmatised conditions such as schizophrenia and alcohol addiction. ASD had high vital force, competence and warmth with low burden, associated with lower stigma conditions.Davis et al. (2024) (89)USAMixed MethodsMean Age (ASD) = 23.43 +/- 2.06
Mean Age (without ASD) = 22.35 +/-1.76Black Emerging Adults Total (n = 34)
With ASD (n = 14)
Control without ASD (n = 20)Understanding Discrimination ScalePublic & Intersectional StigmaBlack autistic adults reported intersecting racism and ableism across home, work, and social settings, cumulatively harming mental health, relationships, and employment outcomes.Doyle et al. (2022) (76)Global (North America, Europe, Australasia, Rest of World)Quantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 38.6 +/- 10.758
n (male) = 181
n (female) = 310
n (non-binary) = 63
n (undisclosed) = 22ASD (n = 576)Workplace Exclusion Scale (WES)
Perceived Group Inclusion Scale (PGIS)Public, Structural & Intersectional StigmaRace, gender and sexuality compounded existing autism related stigma. Participants who were female, non-binary, transgender or black reported reduced sense of belonging, lower authenticity and felt less supported.Fukushima et al. (2025) (57)JapanQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)n (male) = 150
n (female) = 476Neurotypical Japanese University Students (n = 626)Social Distance Scale (SDS)
Four vignettes depicting autistic student in university classroomPublic StigmaDisruptive behaviors and diagnosis disclosure increased public stigma, with the highest stigma when both were present. Contrastingly, those with withdrawn behaviors and closed diagnosis elicited the least stigma.Gargallo-Nieto et al. (2025) (67)SpainQualitative (Semi-structured interview)Mean Age = 34.1 +/- 10.74
n (female) = 30ASD (n = 30)Semi structured interview examining ASD diagnostic processPublic, Structural & Intersectional StigmaLate ASD diagnosis was driven by gender bias and limited adult focussed ASD services, contributing to frustration, self-blame and camouflaging, while diagnosis brought a mixture of relief and guilt or anger.Gillions et al. (2026) (61)UKQualitative (Semi-structured interviews)Age Range = 51-73
n (female) = 15ASD (n = 15)Semi structured interviews examining healthcare experiences
Autism Quotient Score-10 (AQ-10)Public & Structural StigmaPoor autism training in healthcare led to misdiagnosis, dismissal, and reduced trust, worsening mental health and promoting camouflaging, with calls for more flexible care such as telehealth or sensory accommodations.Grahame et al. (2024) (62)UKQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 39.6
n (female) = 9ASD (n = 8)Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)Internalised, Public & Structural StigmaLack of autism-informed maternity care led to judgement, alienation, and self-doubt, while consistent support was protective.Han et al. (2023) ()UKMixed MethodsAge Range = 18-74
n (male) = 50
n (female) = 75
n (non-binary) = 18Total Participants (n = 144)
ASD (n = 124)
Parent/Caregiver of ASD (n = 38)
Both Categories (n = 18)Survey of open ended and multiple choice questions examining benefits, feasibility and barriers of stigma support program and how to best implement itInternalised & Public StigmaStigma was difficult to manage alone, but disclosure commonly lead to hostility, rejection and negative responses due to a lack of knowledge surrounding ASD. Scepticism regarding ASD diagnoses perpetuated internalised feelings of low self-worth, trauma and insecurity, further contributing to masking and poor mental health.Harada et al. (2025) (65)JapanQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Age Range = 34-46
n (male) = 3
n (female) = 4ASD total (n = 7)Semi structured interviews examining autistic lived experiencesInternalised, Public & Structural StigmaParticipants experienced lifelong stigma and hardship, with diagnosis bringing mixed relief and fear. Societal pressure to camouflage was linked to burnout and poorer mental health.Hillier et al. (2020) ()USAQualitative (Focus groups)Age Range = 20-38
n (queer) = 1
n (agender) = 1
n (nonbinary/agender) = 1
n (transgender/male) = 1ASD who identify as LGBTQ+ (n = 4)Questionnaire examining issues and experiences of ASD and LGBTQI+
Focus group discussionsInternalised, Public, Structural and Intersectional StigmaCombined autism and LGBTQ+ stigma cumulatively led to alienation, identity dismissal, and reduced social connection, with poor services contributing to delayed diagnosis and reduced trust in healthcare.Huang et al. (2022) (54)AustraliaMixed MethodsMean Age = 31.89 +/- 17.08
n (male) = 153
n (female) = 213
n (Nonbinary/other) = 27ASD (n = 392)Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-28)
Questionnaire on disclosure of ASD diagnosisPublic StigmaASD disclosure was often used to seek support but avoided in work and study settings due to fear of stigma and negative judgement.Huang et al. (2023) ()AustraliaMixed MethodsMean Age = 41.21 +/- 12.31
n (male) = 36
n (female) = 91
n (other) = 13
n (missing) = 3ASD (n = 143)Autism Spectrum Quotient Short (AQ-28)
Internalised Stigma of Mental Illness Scale– Brief Version (ISMI-9)
Impact of Diagnosis Scale-Revised (IODS-R)Internalised StigmaMost participants reported mild internalised stigma, which was linked to poorer wellbeing and masking, while diagnosis was associated with improved self-understanding and support.Liu et al. (2024) (90)China & NetherlandsQuantitative (Cross Sectional Survey)Mean Age (Chinese) = 26.43 +/- 7.59
n (male) = 23
n (female) = 13
Mean Age (Dutch) = 28.00 +/- 7.35
n (male) = 18
n (female) = 11ASD Chinese (n = 36)
ASD Dutch (n = 29)Internalised Stigma of Mental Illness-10 (ISMI-10)
Survey examining life satisfaction and objective psychosocial functioningInternalised StigmaChinese participants reported higher internalised stigma than Dutch participants, which was associated with poorer friendships and life satisfaction.Mosquera et al. (2021) ()SpainQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 30.2 +/-5.06
n (male) = 1
n (female) = 3
n (nonbinary) = 1ASD (n = 5)Photo Elicitation InterviewsInternalised & Public StigmaParticipants reported pertinent themes of rejection and need for an “endless camouflaging performance,” causing poor mental health. Although COVID-19 lockdowns reduced masking needs and facilitated more time to invest in hobbies and family, it also exacerbated autism stigma, leading to increased vulnerability, meltdowns, anxiety, depression and suicidality.Marion et al. (2023) (55)USAMixed MethodsMean Age = 25.12 +/- 9.50
n (male) = 23
n (female) = 21
n (unreported) = 1ASD (n = 45)Stigma Scale
Adapted Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Social Self-Efficacy Sub Scale
Social Satisfaction Measure
Adaptive Behaviour Assessment System (ABAS)Public StigmaHigher disclosure and discrimination stigma was linked to lower self-efficacy, self-esteem, and social satisfaction, with widespread experiences of ostracization and verbal abuse.Marsack & Perry (2018) (70)USAQualitative (Semi structured interviews)n (female) = 46
n (male) = 5ASD Caregivers (n = 51)Semi structured interviews examining caregiver experiences and quality of lifeAffiliate StigmaLack of autism knowledge led to caregiver blame and stigma, increasing isolation, relationship strain, and emotional, financial and physical burden. Caregiving for adult autistic children was often emotionally and physically exhausting, involving a lot of sacrifice and selflessness.McLeod et al. (2019) (91)USAQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age (ASD) = 21.78 +/- 4.94
n (male) = 58
n (female) = 30
n (other) = 7College Students Total (n = 3073)
ASD (n = 95)
Other Disabilities (n = 804)
Neurotypical (n = 2174)National Survey of Student Engagement
National (NSSE)
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult HealthPublic StigmaUniversity students with ASD had poorer academic, social, and mental health outcomes than neurotypical peers, with few differences compared to other disability groups.MilačićVidojević et al. (2014) (71)SerbiaQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Age Range = 18-65
n (female) = 108
n (male) = 73Neurotypical Adults (n = 181)Family Stigma Questionnaire (FSQ)
Level of Familiarity Questionnaire (LFQ)
Vignettes of family/caregivers of adult ASD childrenAffiliate StigmaStigma toward ASD families involved blame and pity, with parents more stigmatised than siblings; higher stigma was linked to older age, lower education, and low autism knowledge.Nicolaidis et al. (2015) (63)USAQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age (ASD) = 35
n (male) = 22
n (female) = 17ASD (n = 39)
ASD Caregivers (n = 16)Semi structured interviews focussing on healthcare experiencesPublic & Structural StigmaHealthcare stigma led to fear of disclosure and poor care, driven by stereotypes, poor communication and limited training or knowledge, with calls for better education and accommodations.Nimante et al. (2023) (92)LatviaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Age Range = 18-26
n (male) = 4)ASD (n = 4)Semi structured interviews focussing on disclosure in the workplacePublic StigmaParticipants are more likely to disclose their ASD diagnosis to close friends than colleagues or employers. Key reasons included no perceived benefit of disclosure, fear of being stigmatised, reluctance to be seen or treated differently and preference to explain support needs rather than attach autism label.Oti-Boadi et al. (2020) (72)GhanaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age (Parents of ASD) = 55.8
Mean Age (ASD) = 20.5Parents of ASD (n = 9)
ASD (n = 9)Semi structured interviews examining parent experiences of caring for young adults with ASDAffiliate StigmaAffiliate stigma involved social exclusion and blame toward caregivers, which increased emotional burden and contributed to caregiver exhaustion, compounded by limited support in Ghana.Pyszkowska et al. (2025) (79)PolandMixed MethodsMean Age = 27.43 +/-6.71
n (female) = 78
n (male) = 41
n (nonbinary) = 4
n (other) = 9ASD and Queer (n = 134)Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (ISMI)
Sexual Minority Stress Scale (SMSS)
Self-Stigma Scale Short (SSS-S)
Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES)
Autism Quotient-10 (AQ-10)
Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
Open ended questions on experiences of wearing LGBTQ+ symbolsInternalised & Intersectional StigmaASD internalised stigma and queer minority stress were linked to lower life satisfaction and self-esteem, while stigma resistance and pride identity were protective.Riebel et al. (2025) (48)FranceQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 36.5 +/- 10.8
n (female) = 414
n (male) = 175
n (nonbinary) = 80
n (other) = 20ASD (n = 689)Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale -9 (ISMI-9)
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS)
Self Compassion Scale
Externalized and Internalized Shame Scale (EISS)
Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q)Internalised StigmaA sizeable proportion of participants (45.2%) reported moderate to elevated self-stigma, which was correlated to higher rates of depression, mediated by internalised feelings of shame. Self-compassion was protective as it reduced the strength of this relationship, while camouflaging had no effect.Sagar et al. (2024) (40)IndiaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Age Range = 21-50
n (male) = 10
n (female) = 10ASD (n = 20)Semi structured interview and focus groups examining stimming behaviors in the workplaceInternalised & Public StigmaAutistic employees felt pressure to suppress stimming behaviors due to fear of mockery or being perceived as unprofessional. Suppressing stimming increased stress, anxiety and reduced productivity. Stimming behaviors was a protective behavior that supported emotional regulation and stress relief.Soeker (2020) (52)South AfricaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Age Range = 21-53
n (male) = 7
n (female) = 3ASD (n = 10)Semi structured interviews on transitioning into the workplace from skills training programsPublic StigmaWorkplace stigma toward autistic behaviors, including stimming and emotional dysregulation, hindered labor market transition and was linked to increased anxiety and distress.Soffer & ArgamanDanos (2021) (93)IsraelQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 28.4 +/- 6.9
n(male) = 51
n (female) = 35ASD (n = 89)Perceived Devaluation-Discrimination Scale
Rosenberg’s Self Esteem ScalePublic StigmaHigher levels of perceived public stigma were linked to lower self-esteem, despite being low in this study. Self-labelling of Asperger’s Syndrome versus ASD was not significantly linked to perceived public stigma or self-esteem.Stein Duker et al. (2022) (64)USAQualitative (Semi structured interviews)n (male) = 3
n (female) = 29ASD Caregivers (n = 31)Ritvo Autism Asperger diagnostic Scale-Revised (RAADS-R)
Semi structured interviews examining caregiver perspectives on primary healthcarePublic & Structural StigmaCaregivers reported fragmented, inconsistent healthcare for autistic adults, with provider stigma and misinterpretation of autistic behaviors limiting access and quality of care. Better care was suggested to be more accommodating, flexible and considerate of neurodivergence.Tamura et al. (2025) ()JapanQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 37.5 +/- 9.8
n (male) = 146
n (female) = 120
n (nonbinary) = 14
n (other) = 5
n (undisclosed) = 2ASD = 287Autism Spectrum Quotient 10-item short version (AQ-J10)
Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7)
Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)
Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire–Japanese version
Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS)
Stigma Consciousness Scale
Individualistic Strategy Use
Collective Strategy UsePublic StigmaHigher level of perceived stigma was associated with greater need to camouflage autistic traits. Camouflaging mediated the relationship between stigma and mental health outcomes including generalised anxiety, social anxiety and depression, but not mental wellbeing.Tan et al. (2024) (94)AustraliaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 36.3 +/- 9.1
n (female) = 13
n (male) = 3
n (nonbinary) = 5ASD (n = 21)Semi structured interviews examining experiences of stigma at Australian universitiesPublic & Structural StigmaASD stigma culminated in microaggressions and labels of being “retarded” or “exotic.” University campuses were seen as inaccessible and bureaucratic, which were hostile to students with disability due to a lack of adjustments. Students felt compelled to self-advocate, which contributed to increased attrition and delayed careers.Treweek et al. (2019) (51)UKQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 37.33 +/- 15.02
n (male) = 8
n (female) = 4ASD (n = 12)Semi structured interviews examining stereotypes of autistic peoplePublic StigmaParticipants reported a chief stereotype that autistic people are “weird,” resulting in experiences of social exclusion, bullying and loss of individuality and identity.Underhill et al. (2024) (41)USAQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 20.70 +/- 2.31
n (male) = 9
n (female) = 1ASD College Students (n = 10)Semi structured interviews examining experiences and management of peer stigmaInternalised & Public StigmaConcealing autism was linked to anxiety, poorer academic performance, and worse mental and physical health, while internalised stigma reduced belonging, access to support, and meaningful social relationships.Wallisch et al. (2023) (80)USAQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age (ASD) = 32.19 +/- 10.80
n (male) = 39
n (female) = 19
Mean Age (ASD + LGBTQ+) = 32.08 +/- 8.58
n (male) = 9
n (female) = 27
n (other) = 26ASD Total (n = 120)
ASD Only (n = 58)
ASD + LGBTQ+ (n = 62)2019 National Survey on Health and Disability (NSHD) survey questions on health and unmet healthcare needsPublic, Structural & Intersectional StigmaLGBTQI+ autistic adults had poorer physical and mental health and more unmet healthcare needs and comorbidities than straight autistic adults, with anti-discrimination laws linked to reduced unmet needs.Ward et al. (2026) (95)UKQualitative (Semi structured interview)Age Range (ASD) = 35-65
n (male) = 1
n (female) = 5
Family Members
n (female) = 6               ASD (n = 6)
ASD Family Members (n = 6)Semi structured interviews examining phenomenology of later life diagnosis of ASDPublic stigmaAutism stereotypes led to workplace dismissal and nondisclosure, while delayed diagnosis increased emotional distress and reduced support. Earlier diagnosis was seen as beneficial.Whelpley & May (2023) (58)USAQuantitative (Experimental)Interviewees Age Range = 18-25
ASD Group
n (male) = 6
n (female) = 9
Neurotypical Group
n (male) = 4
n (female) = 11
Raters Age Range = 18-25
n (female) = 248
n (male) = 66
n (nonbinary) = 2Interviewees
ASD College Students (n = 15)
Neurotypical College Students (n = 15)
Raters
Neurotypical College Students (n = 314)Mock interviews of 15 ASD and 15 neurotypical college students rated by neurotypical college students on measures of overall impression, performance and hireabilityPublic StigmaAutistic candidates were rated less favorably in areas of likeability, confidence and trustworthiness and less hireable than equally qualified neurotypical peers. This trend was reversed in the absence of social and visual cues.Yoon et al. (2024) (66)South KoreaQualitative (Semi structured interviews)Mean Age = 30.29 +/- 6.27
n (female) = 4
n (male) = 10ASD (n = 14)Semi structured interviews examining secondary school experiences of autism related discriminationPublic & Structural StigmaKorean autistic adults reported bullying, victim-blaming, and systemic ableism, leading to long-term mental distress, nightmares, trauma, exclusion, and poorer education and employment outcomes. This was exacerbated by a culture of elitism, ableism and authoritarianism.Zhuang et al. (2025) ()Australia, GlobalQuantitative (Cross sectional survey)Mean Age = 35.5 +/- 11.8
n (female) = 137
n (male) = 64
n (other) = 21
n (undisclosed) = 3ASD (n = 225)Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q)
Broad Autism Type Questionnaire (BAPQ)
Brief Fear of Negative EvaluationII Scale (BFNE-II)
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)
Multicomponent In-group Identification Scale (MIIS)
Perceived Stigma Measure (PSM)
Vulnerability Experiences Quotient (VEQ)
Tightness Looseness Scale (TLS)
Self Construal Scale (SCS)Public StigmaGreater camouflaging was linked to lower self-esteem and higher perceived stigma, with fear of negative peer evaluation acting as the main mediator.