结构化运动对童年、青少年与老年执行功能的影响：一项系统综述与三层元分析

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Front. Psychol.

Sec. Cognition

• 1. Capital Institute of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China

• 2. Beijing University of Agriculture, Changping District, China

Abstract

Background: Structured exercise may benefit executive function across the life course, but whether effects vary by executive-function domain, developmental stage, or qualitative exercise characteristics remains uncertain.Methods: We conducted a systematic review and three-level meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in non-clinical children, adolescents, and older adults. Five databases were searched from inception to May 20, 2026; eligible reports were published in English from January 1, 2015 onward. Outcomes were classified as inhibitory control, working memory, or cognitive flexibility. Intervention arms were coded for environmental predictability, cognitive engagement, coordination complexity, and motor skill learning demand. Three-level random-effects models retained dependent effect sizes within studies, with study-clustered CR2 robust variance estimation. The review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420261402803).Results: Forty-seven trials representing 49 independent samples contributed 202 effect sizes. Structured exercise was associated with better executive-function performance (Hedges' g = 0.412, robust 95% CI [0.284, 0.540], p < 0.001). Heterogeneity was substantial (total I² = 74.45%), and the 95% prediction interval ranged from −0.476 to 1.299. Pooled effects were positive for all three executive-function domains and for children, adolescents, and older adults, but neither domain (p = 0.060) nor developmental stage (p = 0.825) significantly moderated the effect. Environmental predictability, cognitive engagement, coordination complexity, motor skill learning demand, intervention duration, and comparator type were also not significant moderators. Results were stable across sensitivity analyses and all leave-one-study-out analyses. Small-study-effect diagnostics were inconsistent, and publication bias could not be confirmed or excluded. GRADE certainty was low because of serious risk of bias and inconsistency.Conclusion: Structured exercise was associated with a positive average effect on executive function across childhood, adolescence, and later life. However, substantial heterogeneity and a prediction interval spanning no effect indicate that benefits are not uniform. Current evidence does not identify a specific executive-function domain, developmental stage, program duration, comparator type, or broadly defined exercise skill characteristic that consistently yields larger effects.

Keywords

cognitive engagement, Developmental Stage, Environmental predictability, Executive Function, motor skill learning, Structured exercise, Three-level meta-analysis

Received

29 July 2026

Accepted

29 September 2026

Copyright

© 2026 Liu, Fan and Zhou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence:

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